Identify and describe relevant theories for explaining the delinquent behavior childhood prostitution. Identify how stratification may have or does effect the behavior.
Utilize library and internet resources to retrieve and report on broad general data on the behavior. Report on any categorical data that may isolate relevant facts.
Early Historical Explanations
Explanation for criminal deviant behavior has changed and developed throughout history. Depending on time and culture, acts of deviance have been attributed to the individual, their choice, their personality, they have freewill; while other cultures have used supernatural explanations such as demonic possession, witchcraft, lunacy (stages of the moon), and the like, they have little to know freewill.
For the most part, these two basic approaches to explaining crime persist today. The idea of freewill is still widely adopted by persons today. The Classical School of criminology argues that criminals simply are making choices to commit crimes and whatever motivation is leading them to choosing criminal activity can be ignored. People believe that would be criminals can be made aware of negative consequences of crime in order to deter them from choosing crime. Also widely accepted are “positivist” ideas for causes of crime. A pure deterministic approach to explaining crime is to argue that there is no freewill. That the context and situation of the person is the absolute cause of the behavior. In fact, place any person in the exact same circumstances as the criminal actor, and any person would make the exact same, so called, “choice”.
In reality most people, even criminologists, often sway back and forth between these two extreme foundational assumptions. The Neoclassical school of criminology recognizes that individuals do have choice when it comes to their behavior, but those choices are shaped and limited to the context and circumstances. For example, a starving person is very likely to choose to steal bread, a poor person is somewhat likely to steal bread, and a very wealthy person is very unlikely to steal bread. Of course a starving person could choose to die. But a filthy rich person might be even less likely to choose to die. Circumstances only require the starving person to make that choice. To say that “choosing bread to end starving” explains crime action ignores “choosing bread to end starving” also explains noncriminal action.
As noted in the previous section, crime can be attributed to biological factors such as hunger, pain, and so on. The brain, the “choice organ”, may be affected by disease, injury, or the effects of such chemical agents as alcohol and drugs. Below are some examples of biological and psychological factors that have been studied and suspected to contribute to criminal activity.
Biological Factors of Brain Function
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a syndrome with symptoms such as poor impulse control, restlessness, and inability to concentrate. Neurotransmitters are chemicals secreted by neurons that facilitate the transmission of information from one neuron to another. Low levels of certain neurotransmitters like serotonin can cause mental disorders and aggressive behavior. Hormone levels can affect aggressiveness. Chemicals particularly drugs and alcohol disrupt regular brain function are common factors in both property and violent crimes.
Psychological Factors
Mental Disorders or mental illness is a medical condition that interferes with a person’s ability to function on a day-to-day basis are often found within individuals committing crimes. Serious crime and social disorder is commonly caused by Psychoses, serious disorders that leave individuals out of touch with reality. Mood disorders such as depression, bipolar affective, post-partum depression may often lead to reckless type crimes. Personality disorders like that of antisocial personalities, psychopathy, sociopathy, narcissism might explain an entire range of minor to major criminal activities. Anxiety disorders like that of post-traumatic stress disorder, social anxiety, general anxiety, and various phobias can lead to criminal choices. Lastly, intelligence and learning disorders lead to inability to reason when choosing behaviors as well as make it difficult to solve problems and adapt to life in lawful ways.
One of the most common crimes committed with root causes in biology and psychology issues is illegal drug and alcohol abuse. These choices in turn create other factors in criminal activity. The biological and psychological issues combine to create social factors that increase the likelihood crime is chosen by the individual.
Sociological Explanations
Sociology is the study of human beings within their social environments and includes looking carefully at how people behave and interact in societies. In essence, it is studying how humans affect humans. Sociological factors that relate to the study of crime and its causes include income, racism, sexism, capitalism, education, and many others.
As noted in prior Explanations and Causes sections, environmental factors and circumstances are often the most consequential to criminal choices. A person with a learning disability does not necessarily choose crime. It is only when the disability leads to academic failure, leading to economic and social hardships that the person may choose criminal activity.
Social Pathology and Structure Theories
Social pathology and social structure theories view society as if it were an organism. That is society is made of cells, that make up various systems, that all provide various functions required for the health and survival of the society. These theories see crime as a result of system failures, imbalances, shortage of resources, or pathogens. This social level diagnostic approach identifies large scale disruptions to social systems like that of the recent Covid-19 epidemic, the opioid epidemic, growing wealth inequality as well as local dysfunctions such low education funds, impoverished and crumbling neighborhoods, and street gangs.
According to Strain Theory, constructed by work of Robert K. Merton, argues that society and its various systems and ideologies impose specific goals, and specific means in order to accomplish those goals. That is, society as a whole sets up the rewards system– what rewards are available and what persons are required to do to get them. For example, in the U.S. today one must have money to have typical (relative to the society) quality of life resources. In order to have money, one must be employed or engage in entrepreneurship. In order to get employed or resources to go into business, academic degrees are typically required. But what happens if an individual does not have the mental, psychological, or financial capacity or opportunity to finish high school or higher degree? According to Merton, this results in strain by which the individual has 5 main adaptations to such dysjunction between the goals and means that society has set up for the individuals:
Conformity is when the individual continues to strive for an education in order to become gainfully employed to earn money. Embrace both the goal and means of society.
or
Innovation is when the individual chooses non conventional means such as creating a fake diploma to get a job, selling illegal narcotics, engaging in prostitution, or other unaccepted means of employment and entrepreneurship. –Continue to pursue the goal of earning money but choosing unacceptable means.
or
Ritualism is when the individual chooses to continue efforts to find legal employment that will provide enough money but accepts that they will have to live in a tent and eat out of trash cans. –Continue to follow society’s prescribed means but no longer strive for society’s goals.
or
Retreatism is when the individual no longer seeks typical quality of life resources nor do they seek employment or money. –Ignore or reject both social goals and means.
or
Rebellion is when the individual chooses to no longer seek employment and money but something else like living in the woods, surviving off the land. –Possibly change society. Create unique or atypical goals and/or unique or atypical means.
Merton also introduced the construct of structural anomie in which he recognizes that societies and groups can emphasize disproportionately societal goals and means. For example, if a society stresses the means more than the goals, individuals may be more likely to choose ritualism. Where as in a society that stresses the goals more than the means will likely have individuals more likely choosing innovation.
Merton’s Strain Theory
Social Control Theories
Social Control Theories approach the explanation of crime differently than typical theories and factors. Social Control Theories ask a different question, “Why don’t persons commit crimes?” That is, social control theories explain crime by the absence of social mechanisms that inhibit crime. This theory focuses on the social conditions, systems and their efficacy in controlling crime.
Containment Theory identifies 4 main mechanisms, two internal and two external, by which society controls individuals. First, the basic classical external method of supervision. Society watches it’s members and intervenes. The criminal justice system is the most obvious way in which supervision is accomplished. Second, society provides opportunities for non criminal activities. This external containment involves all the opportunities for work, play, and exploration. For example, schools, athletics, parks, music are some of the non criminal activities most communities provide. Third, society has mechanisms to develop individual’s skills for appropriate activities. This individual efficacy helps push individuals internally to non criminal activity. Fourth, society has mechanisms to shape the self-concept, the ideas and character that each individual has. Individuals can develop values in which they desire appropriate activities and find criminal behavior undesirable. Individuals learn to delay gratification, establish appropriate goals, and avoid obstacles.
Social Bond Theory argues that the motivation to adhere to society’s and the community’s expectations of behavior is reflective of the extent to which the individual has bonded to the community. The theory focuses on four facets of social bond. First, attachment is the importance of the relationships within the community. Friends, family, significant others, children bond individuals to community standards. Second, commitment refers to the amount of time or resources the individual has invested. The purchase of a house, an education, and the time to establish those and relationships increases the motivation to adhere to community standards. Third, more involvement in the activities of the community the greater the adherence to standards. Fourth, belief in the values of the community. The sharing of goals and morality of the community increases adherence.
Social Learning Theories
Social learning theories argue that individuals learn to commit and value criminal activity in the same way that individuals learn to commit and value non criminal activity. Just as individuals learn how and why and the value of brushing one’s teeth, individuals learn the how and why and value smoking marijuana. We learn through interaction with others. Our parents may teach a child that marijuana is bad and it is harmful. Friends may teach the same child that marijuana is good and not harmful. Differential-Association theory argues that individuals learn within the most significant relationships they have and the difference between interactions that support criminal activity and those interactions that reject criminal activity is what determines the likelihood of engaging in criminal activity. Ultimately, criminal activity is driven by the amount of significant interactions and relationships that support criminal behavior.
Labeling and Conflict Theories
For full review of topic from Soc 230 Criminology:
Social Learning and Subculture Theories
from Soc 230 Criminology
pdfLearning%20and%20Subculture%20Theories%20%20Excerpt%20from%20Soc%20230.pdf
Labeling Theory argues that individuals are assigned criminal roles. Like some of the theories you have read about, one way the community can assign a person a criminal role is by labeling them as such. Tagging them as a certain type of criminal can accomplish 1) make it so the individual internalizes the criminal role (self-label) and they truly believe that is who they are, and/or 2) make it so the community pushes them or insists that they play that role, whether they want it or not, and/or 3) make it so that the shaming of the individual leads to the individual losing all bonds to the community and no longer wishes or desires to adhere to community standards.
Labeling can be brought on in two ways. 1) An individual may be labeled by the community due to a certain status that is out of their control, such as race, family, gender, class (level of wealth), or any other stigma brought on by physical state. 2) A person engages in a “primary deviance” act to solve a problem, like fitting into a group, alleviating boredom, hunger, victimization, and so on. Once the labeling begins, “secondary deviance” ensues–deviance created by the labeling.
Conflict theories argue that crime and deviance is the result of competition and conflict over resources. Marxist theories, stemming from the works of Karl Marx, focus on the natural conflicts between employees and owners, the utilization of the state and government to control wealth and resources by those who already have it, and the utilization of culture and cultural conflict by those in power to distract from employee exploitation. Criminalization of behavior and crime itself is a manifestation of these underlying economic conditions and efforts. Various discrimination and subculture conflict theories hold similar type assumptions in that crime and the labeling of crime is ultimately the result of those with power and resources utilizing that power to maintain their class and status. Feminist criminology theories also hold conflict theory assumptions. Some of these theories argue that women are discriminated against due to efforts by men to maintain their power, some theories focus more on the inadvertent labeling of women due to social conditions and culture, while other theories argue that men and women are indeed unique animals, different by nature, and that there are natural conflicts which are manifested in criminal and deviant labeling and behavior.
Development, Life-Course, Trajectory
Theories focused on development, consider what factors and timing turn juveniles into persistent delinquents. Life-Course theory for example, argues that delinquency occurs in disruptions of necessary life developments. Transitions to positive roles, relationships, thinking, attitudes, and so on but be made in a timely fashion to diminish delinquent behaviors. Life-course theories explain factors in delinquency like that of abuse, family dysfunction, poverty, trauma as disruptions to necessary life-course transitions. It is recognized that the earlier transition disruption occurs, the more significant and serious the delinquency will be.
The figure below taken from a research summary published by the Bureau of Justice Assistance (https://bja.ojp.gov/) depicts Sampson and Laub’s Age-Graded Theory of informal social control. Note how factors from family structures transition to peer and education structures, into labor structures. Throughout the life-course, the level of social capital–relationships that support– are a critical factor at each grade. Additional, the various disruptions and disadvantages faced accumulate over the life-course.
Propensity theories like a Gottfredson and Hirschi’s General Theory of Crime focus on a social control perspective. Impulsive personality combined with low self-control, low social bonds, and criminal opportunity results in criminal activity are depicted in the following model (Cengage Learning 2015).
Desistance and Developmental Life Course Theories: Research Summary
pdfdesistanceresearchsummary.pdf
Bureau of Justice Assistance https://bja.ojp.gov