- What implications does the bureaucratic, Taylorist and Fayolian systems have on social administration and social work practice and the approach to the “social question”?
- What alternatives do you suggest dealing with the prevailing political, economic and social systems and fight for the values of the profession (human dignity, democracy, equity, human rights, citizenship, ethics, social justice, participation, self-determination and without discriminating for gender, ethnicity, gender identity, religion, race, or functional diversity)?
Brief description of the historical development of social work
After the end of feudalism and with the beginning of the age of industrialization (mid-18th and early 19th century) many workers were displaced as machinery took over the jobs done by “living” workers. This caused many unemployed workers to be plunged into poverty, suffering from food shortages and homelessness. While capital production and global communication grew, this burgeoning economy produced unemployment, poverty, and increased social problems amid unprecedented wealth.
It should be noted that the “social question” was addressed by non-profit, charitable, and religious organizations, such as the Charity Organization Society (COS), Protestant missionaries, establishment of Settlement Houses, among others. The Settlement Houses focused on finding solutions through group work or community organizations. The program established by the New York COS in association with Columbia University became the New York School of Philanthropy and eventually became the Columbia University School of Social Work. The social work of the COS concentrated more on investigating individual or family backgrounds. In 1919, there were 17 schools of social work affiliated with the Association of Training Schools of Social Work, the predecessor of what is now called the Council on Social Work Education (CSWE).
With the Great Depression comes the New Deal and the Welfare State comes into being, and many social workers are employed to deal with the “social question”, elevating the status of social work as a profession. Although the “social question” was addressed by state and local government programs, it was not enough when “social problems” seemed to reach a critical level, as industrial economies produced new problems: unemployment neglected and abandoned children, chronic disability, and poverty amid unprecedented wealth. The federal government got involved creating new social policies to address these “social problems”. The perspective of social work was absent in the articulation of social policies to work with the “social question”. Social policies were articulated by politicians advised by professionals in the field of social sciences or other disciplines, a situation that continues to occur today. Organizations and programs were managed by people from other disciplines because the vision that permeated the early days of the profession was direct service social work, and the social work profession was not associated with administrators or managers (Austin, 2018). These administrative positions were dominated by men and grew out of the experiences and expertise of the (female) social workers who worked in the Settlement House programs.
With the emergence of new federal programs, there was a growing demand for social policy administrators with experience in social service. However, both social work professionals and educators in the academy viewed administration as an activity on the periphery of society. social work. This perception has been maintained up to the present, therefore, by requiring specialized knowledge and skills in administrative matters, social work was supplanted by other professions (public administration, business administration, public health administrators) to administer programs emanating from public policies. social.
For more than a century, social work has developed and reinvented itself in response to rapid social and economic change, focusing on advocating for meeting the needs of the most vulnerable segments of society and improving your well-being (Variety of specialties and domain areas). Today, social workers constitute the largest number of professionals working in the areas of mental health and family services. However, due to the lack of acquisition of skills and knowledge in management, they are not placed in management positions, creating a dislocation in what the profession pronounces and what it practices. In addition to this, the changes in the administration models have exacerbated the absence of a social work perspective in social administration.
Authoritarianism and the bureaucratic model
Ortiz (2014) defines authoritarianism as a system of government which meets the following conditions:
- An undemocratic government.
- A government in which a person or elite exercises power, an arbitrary power, which is considered legitimate by those who are in the same power relationship with the other, therefore, they validate the legitimacy of this power, of that authority and maintain an obedient behavior. An authority exercised unilaterally and hierarchically in the political, economic, and religious areas, among others.
- A government without citizen participation in which all rights are restricted, including their personal and civil liberties, autonomy, and decisions are made without consensus with the “citizenship”.
- A system in which an oppressive social order prevails.
- A government, indisputably patriarchal and paternalistic, exercising a power.
Ortiz (2014) states that “authoritarian regimes are also called” autocracies “. In addition, he mentions that through the imposition and restriction of freedom, obedience is expected and demanded from subordinates and they are anti-democratic governments. Authoritarianism is characterized by an absence of elections or if they are held it is through a process of intimidation, surveillance to ensure the “re-election” of the authoritarian government. Regime that prevailed in the pre-industrial era.
This is in stark contrast to industrial society and post-industrial society which were characterized by increasing degrees of freedom and autonomy. One of the government systems that emerged in this era was the bureaucratic system. The system arises from the need and search for greater predictability, order, and precision. Bureaucracies were largely inspired by the Weberian model.
At the beginning of the 20th century, Max Weber published the structural definition of bureaucracy and presented the postulates of the “Ideal type” that characterizes the bureaucratic system. The bureaucratic system establishes that organizations, governments, etc. are organized by rules, laws or administrative regulations, which are distributed in a fixed, stable manner as official duties that everyone must follow and comply with (Dolan et al., 2015). This compliance is coercively required, and resources are applied for the continuous fulfillment of duties, and only those who comply can enjoy the rights that correspond to them (Shafritz and Hyde, 2000).
Another principle of bureaucracy is the establishment of a hierarchical style in government, public and private organizations, and offices with an orderly system of super and subordination in which there is supervision of lower positions by superiors. It is assumed that the most specialized, prepared and with an expertise and complete preparation will occupy positions in the upper levels of the hierarchical system. Positions that involve exhaustive work in the office without time in the office, performing various tasks, being limited.
In summary, bureaucracy is based on principles that include hierarchy, formal rules, uniformity, legitimacy, specialization of work, standardization of procedures, division of labor, impersonality, meritocracy, and technical qualifications (Admin, 2021).
Proposals of Weber, Taylor, and Fayol
Weber’s proposal was not without flaws. The reality revealed large gaps between theory and practice, which questioned and eroded the credibility of traditional bureaucracies (Lampropoulou, 2018). This model produced problems in the efficiency and effectiveness of the services and goods administered and offered and, consequently, low productivity. Resistance to flexibility and limitation of citizen and social participation, politicized processes and positions persisted. The organizations showed inertia in the face of constant social changes and growing economic needs. Situation that leads to a general reconsideration and questioning of the principles underlying the bureaucracy, with the emergence of other aspects and models in public administration, the New Economy Institute, Governance, New Public Management together with Neoliberal Policies,
Other proposals besides the Weberian principles of bureaucracy are the Scientific Administration (Taylor) and the General Theory of Administration (Fayol). The scientific management theory proposed by Frederick Winslow Taylor, who is considered one of the first thinkers of managerial administration, intends to develop a science of work and a Scientific Administration based on the principles of work organization, selection and training of the worker, cooperation and individual remuneration and responsibility and specialization of managers in work planning (Jauregui, nd and Shafritz & Hyde, 2017). The organization of work sought to ensure that the operators produced as much as possible in the shortest possible time and replace inefficient work methods considering times, delays, responsible operations, and tools. Worker selection consisted of employing the best worker and most suitable for the assigned job. The cooperation between managers and operators was that the goals of the employees were the same as the employer. This was achieved through remuneration, ensuring that the worker produced more and will earn more. Also, managers responded to top executives in the same way. And finally, there was a division of labor between the supervisors and the workers. On the one hand, the supervisors were responsible for the planning, that is, the mental work, while the workers did the manual work, generating greater efficiency.
Although Taylor and Fayol were contemporaries, Fayol, an engineer, and business administration theorist, contributes, especially, on problems not addressed by Taylor. Martin (2019) mentions that Fayol established that every company must comply with the following functions:
- Technical functions linked to the production of goods and services, such as productive functions.
- Commercial functions, to the purchase, sale, and exchange.
- Financial functions that have to do with capital management, avoiding reckless uses of capital.
- Security functions ensure the well-being of the organization and the workers.
- Accounting functions keep the numbers in terms of costs, inventories, and business statistics.
- Administrative functions, functions of regulation, integration, and control of the five
previous functions.
Fayol developed and promoted 14 fundamental principles shown in the following Table 1.
Table 1: Fayol’s 14 Management Principles
| Fayol’s 14 management principles |
| 1. Division of labor. Each employee has a different ability and strength that must be exploited. Depending on the experience of each one, they can be considered specialists in something, even generalists. If there is a certain specialization in a field, this increases efficiency and productivity, since there is greater precision in each task that is carried out. This principle is applicable to all workers and managers of the company. |
| 2. Authority and responsibility. With authority comes responsibility and some risk, and those in charged in making the business run must assume these responsibilities by giving the management team the power to dictate to other employees. |
| 3. The discipline. Discipline entails obedience and respect for fundamental values. Good conduct and the creation of relationships based on respect is the key that sustains a quality relationship between all members of the organization, from management to the lowest levels. |
| 4. Command unit. It refers to the importance that each employee receives orders about the tasks that he must perform from a single manager and that he explains the results of each task to that same person. When orders are received from different people, this can lead to confusion and conflicts that, being led by a single person, can be avoidable. With the unity of command, responsibilities can be established and associated in a much simpler way. |
| 5. Unit direction. This refers to the focus and unity of the activities, that is, they must all work towards the same objective, specifically detailed in the action plan. Those who oversee management are ultimately responsible for the plan and have the function of supervising the evolution of the planned tasks to meet the established objectives. In this case, the discipline and organization of the teams becomes very important. |
| 6. Subordination of individual interest to the general. In all types of companies there are different kinds of interests, since each employee has particular interests, but they should never prevail over the interest of the company. The business strategy and approach are focused on the entity’s objectives, and this principle must be respected by all members, especially by management. |
| 7. Remuneration. It is important to have employees who are motivated and fully productive. Remuneration must be consistent and fair for everyone so that they feel happy in their jobs and thus increase productivity. There are two types of remuneration, economic and non-economic, the second deals with promotions within companies, awards, and recognition of merits and efforts, among other recognitions. |
| 8. Hierarchy. Fayol demands maximum respect from the highest levels, thus establishing a very clear line of authority and hierarchy in the organization, going through all its levels. He emphasizes that there must be a well-defined organization chart that stipulates the level at which each person is located, to be able to report information to the right person at all times and thus avoid unnecessary communication errors. |
| 9. Centralization. The authority when making decisions must be distributed in a balanced and coherent way, especially in large companies with a greater volume of business and personnel. To do this, Fayol proposes centralization, which implies a certain concentration of authority in the hands of the highest part of the hierarchy. But, without a doubt, in some cases said authority must be delegated, following the structure of each entity. For proper functioning, authority must be kept in the hands of the relevant levels of the hierarchy. |
| 10. Order. Each employee must have the necessary means and resources to be able to adequately carry out the functions assigned to them. In addition, each one must occupy the workplace that is most suitable according to their strengths and abilities. And, above all, order must always be maintained at all levels to guarantee an optimal work environment and good conditions. |
| 11. Equity. It emphasizes that workers must be treated with fairness, kindness and the same always, regardless of their function or origin. Each one must be in the most correct place for him, in order to offer maximum performance and contribute to improved results. Everyone deserves to be treated fairly and impartially, whether or not they are subordinates. |
| 12. Stability. This fundamental principle refers to the importance of staff stability, that is, of specialization. He points out that a high turnover can impair the proper functioning of the areas and markedly reduce the security felt by the person in the workplace. |
| 13. Initiative. It clearly encourages the importance of the initiative of each worker to carry out tasks, that is, the flexibility and freedom to be able to add value to their job. Tolerance for mistakes must prevail since we are all human and can make them. For this, it is important to be empathetic and tolerate possible errors. |
| 14. Spirit of the body. In this case, teamwork is promoted, essential for there to be collaboration and participation in all aspects. In addition, it is vital for unity among all members of companies. In this way, it contributes to a good development of the business culture and favors to a certain extent the trust that they can have with each other. |
Source: Martin, J. (2019). Fayol’s principles and the basic functions of the company.
Social work
Both in the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century, the integration of social work in social administration has been required. However, the offers in the academy in relation to administration courses have decreased due to restrictions of financial resources and other reasons (Austin, 2018). According to Rothman (2013), the study carried out by the Association of Community Organization and Social Administration (ACOSA) is a wake-up call regarding social work at the macro level, which includes social administration. Below, in Table 2, are the dilemmas and findings of the study carried out and pointed out by Rothman (2013).
Esquivel (2004) states that social work is a product and is inserted in the monopoly capitalist system and in the bureaucratic models of Taylor and Fayol. He also indicates that this situation allows the formation of agents in charge of operationalizing the policies that are known as social, and that are oriented towards the search for the reproduction of the labor force, through the provision of at least basic services and goods (in the best of the cases), to stop or diminish any attempt of mobilization oriented to the social, economic and political vindication of the working mass, policies that are also the result of the capital-labor contradiction, and that allow the legitimization of the mode of production (Esquivel , 2004, p.120).
Table 2: Education for Macro Intervention (Rothman, 2013)
The state legitimizes the practice of social work and inserts it into the workplace as salaried subjects, who sell their labor and perpetuates, in most cases, the hegemonic ideology. This aspect reveals the culture of subalternity, uncritical and instrumental functionality following the regulations of the state apparatus, and contradictory elements to the discourse offered in the academy. Although social work was and has been inserted in social programs, in most cases, based on dominant proposals, responding to the capitalist and neoliberal system trying to maintain social control and the status quo.
Esquivel (2004) urges “not to have a unilateral position that tries to “castrate” the profession of efforts to articulate, from its predominant project, to the processes of social participation, construction of citizenship, gender, social violence, among others” (p. 122). Incorporating the profession to the discussion of social policies, to the production, execution and evaluation of the objectives proposed in the programs and projects giving way to social administration is the right way to address social issues.
It is necessary to point out that this management or social administration becomes highly relevant with globalization, neoliberalism, proposals for privatization, reduction of social spending, modifications in social policies and the change from a bureaucratic government system to a managerial one, which gives way to the transformation of the approach to the “social question”. Esquivel (2004) states that iit must be recognized that in Social Work there are differentiated positions for addressing the links with social management; but this does not exclude the need to fight from a professional position with those who do not see themselves as linked to a process against exploitation, abuse, violation of democracy, extermination of the environment and against all exclusion; therefore against the relationships based on patriarchal-capitalism, as a mode of production that generates all those social complexities that violate human dignity (p. 129).
In addition, Social Work must defend and ensure that social administration permeates the values of ethics, social justice, citizenship, participation, self-determination, and democracy and without discrimination based on gender, ethnicity, gender identity, religion, race, and functional diversity. In short, the values on which the profession is founded. The professional of social work must defend human rights and promote their universalization and expansion and fight against violence, authoritarianism, patriarchy, respecting human dignity and democracy, and seeking equity and universal access to the goods and services that confer the rights of citizenship.
HERE ARE SOME ADDITIONAL RESOURCES IF NEEDED
Readings
Admin (2021). Principles of bureaucracy. Guardian. https://www.zambianguardian.com/max-weber-six-principles-of-bureaucracy/Links to an external site.
Austin, M. (2018). Social work management practice, 1917–2017: A history to inform the future. Social Services Review, 92(4). https://doi.org/10.1086/701278Links to an external site.
Dolan, J. & Rosenbloom, D.H. (2015). Representative bureaucracy: Classic readings and continuing controversies. Taylor and Francis.
Esquivel, F. (2004). Social work and social management: A theoretical-critical review of their links. In Social Policy and Social Work, 2, pp. 120-134. University of Puerto Rico.
Jáuregui, A. (n.d.). Principles of scientific management, Taylor and Ford. Gestiopolis. https://www.gestiopolis.com/principios-de-la-administracion-cientifica-taylor-y-ford/Links to an external site.
Lampropoulou, M. (2018). Theoretical models of public administration and patterns of state reform in Greece. International Review of Administrative Sciences, 84(1). DOI:10.1177/0020852315611219
Martin, J. (2019). Fayol’s principles and the basic functions of the company.
Ortiz, C. (2014). authoritarianism. National Foundation for Development, FUNDE. http://www.repo.funde.org/id/eprint/939/7/AUTORITARISMO.pdfLinks to an external site.
Rothmann, J. (1996). The interweaving of community intervention approaches. Journal of Community Practice 3(3–4): 69–99.
Shafritz, J.M. & Hyde, A.C. (2000). Classics of public administration. Culture Fund Economic.
Shafritz, J.M., and Hyde, A.C. (2017). Classics in public administration (8th ed.). Cengage Learning