This
study examines how the EGD addresses human security in SIS and its
vulnerabilities. First, the literature review will provide an in-depth analysis
of SIS’s unique characteristics. This will help identify Malta’s specific characteristics
as a small island state that faces challenges like those of other small island
nations outside the European Union (EU). Additionally, the review will assess
how human security theory aligns with the goals of the EGD.
The
EGD represents a significant shift in the EU’s approach to climate change and
sustainability, with the ambitious goal of establishing the EU as the world’s
first climate-neutral continent by 2050. It offers a vision of economic growth from
resource use and environmental degradation, potentially steering in sustainability.
However, the EGD’s
applicability and effectiveness in diverse member states, particularly small MS
like Malta, remain underexplored. With its unique geographical, economic, and
social characteristics, Malta presents a distinct set of challenges and
opportunities in implementing these transformative policies.
This
chapter deepens the analysis initiated in the previous section by investigating
the existing academic literature on EGD and human security, emphasising
exploring the gaps that justify the need for this research. The chapter will
critically engage with scholarly sources to understand the relevance of human
security as a framework for evaluating the EGD’s impact on Malta and why
traditional assessment frameworks might fall short.
2.2 Small Island States
and their characteristics
Common
geographical, environmental, and economic vulnerabilities characterise Small
Island Developing States (SIDS). Literature on SIDS frequently highlights their
susceptibility to climate change impacts, including sea-level rise, coastal
erosion, and increased intensity of tropical storms (Nurse et al., 2014). These
islands also tend to have small economies with limited diversification, heavily
relying on a few industries such as tourism, agriculture, and fisheries
(Briguglio 1995). Furthermore, their remoteness from major global markets
contributes to high import costs, exacerbating their economic vulnerability
(Pelling & Uitto 2001). Additionally, governance challenges, such as
limited human resources and institutional capacity, further complicate their
ability to respond to environmental and economic shocks (Kelman, 2010).
In
comparison, Malta, a Mediterranean island state, shares some of these
vulnerabilities but has been able to mitigate specific risks due to its unique
geopolitical and economic circumstances. As Briguglio (2016) notes, Malta’s EU
membership has provided it with significant financial and political support,
offering access to regional development funds and integration into larger trade
markets. Also, Malta has diversified its economy beyond tourism to include
financial services, information technology, and manufacturing (Cordina, 2004).
Despite these advantages, Malta still faces challenges typical of SIDS, such as
environmental degradation, water scarcity, and dependency on imports for energy
and food. However, its relatively higher institutional capacity and access to
EU regulatory frameworks distinguish it from many smaller, more isolated island
states. Malta, being a small state, affects its negotiations and policy
strategies compared to larger EU countries since it has the vulnerabilities of
the SIS.
Comparatively,
SIDS in the Pacific and Caribbean face more pronounced vulnerabilities due to
their excellent isolation, smaller economic bases, and limited access to
external support mechanisms (Pelling & Uitto, 2001; Kelman, 2010). For
instance, many Pacific Island states are at the frontlines of sea-level rise,
with limited land area and freshwater resources, making them more exposed to
existential climate threats than Malta (Barnett & Campbell 2010). The
literature thus underscores that while Malta shares the general vulnerabilities
of SIS, its unique position within the EU and its economic diversification
strategies reduces its overall risk profile relative to other SIDS.
Despite
its membership in the EU, Malta continues to exhibit many vulnerabilities
characteristic of SIDS. Although its inclusion in the EU provides Malta with
economic, political, and institutional advantages, its small size, geographic
isolation, and resource constraints remain critical factors that shape its
domestic challenges and influence its position within the broader EU framework.
These vulnerabilities manifest in Malta’s environmental, economic, and social
dimensions and affect its ability to negotiate and influence policy at the EU
level, particularly when compared to larger, more powerful member states.
Malta’s
geographical position in the Mediterranean and its limited land area exposes it
to significant environmental risks. As a small island state, it is particularly
susceptible to the effects of climate change, including rising sea levels,
increased frequency of extreme weather events, coastal erosion, and water
scarcity (Attard 2018). Malta’s freshwater resources are highly constrained,
and the country relies heavily on energy-intensive desalination processes to
meet its water needs. These environmental vulnerabilities are exacerbated by
high population density and urbanisation, which place additional pressure on
land and resources. While the EU has adopted climate adaptation and mitigation
strategies, Malta’s specific geographical and environmental challenges mean
that it often faces difficulties in aligning EU-wide policies with its national
priorities (Briguglio 2014). Furthermore, as a small state, Malta has limited
capacity to influence the direction of broader EU environmental policies, often
shaped by the interests of more prominent member states with different
environmental concerns.
Economic
Vulnerabilities Malta’s small economy remains vulnerable to external shocks
despite the economic diversification it has achieved in recent decades. While
the financial services, information technology, and manufacturing sectors have
reduced their dependence on tourism, the island remains exposed to global
economic fluctuations. The tourism sector, which still plays a significant role
in Malta’s economy, is particularly susceptible to downturns, as seen during
the global financial crisis in 2008 and the COVID-19 pandemic (Cordina 2020).
Additionally, Malta’s reliance on imports for essential goods, including food
and energy, increases its exposure to international supply chain disruptions
and price volatility. Although EU membership provides Malta access to the
single market and structural funds, these benefits do not eliminate the
inherent vulnerabilities of being a small, open economy (Briguglio 2016).
Moreover, Malta’s limited economic size means it has less negotiating power
within the EU, where decisions on trade, finance, and market regulations are
often driven by larger economies such as Germany, France, and Italy.
Malta’s
strategic location in the central Mediterranean has historically made it a
focal point for regional geopolitical dynamics. In recent years, the island has
become a key transit point for migration flows from North Africa and the Middle
East into Europe. As a small state with limited social and infrastructural
capacity, Malta faces significant challenges in managing irregular migration.
The influx of migrants has strained the country’s healthcare, housing, and
social services and contributed to political and social tensions (Carabott,
2016). While the EU has implemented policies to assist member states in
addressing migration pressures, Malta’s small size means that it is
disproportionately affected by migration compared to larger EU countries, which
have more resources to absorb and integrate migrants. In this context, Malta
has struggled to assert its interests in negotiations over EU-wide migration
policies, often shaped by larger member states’ priorities.
As
a small state, Malta faces inherent limitations in its capacity to shape EU
policies and negotiations. In comparison to larger member states, Malta has
fewer resources in terms of economic clout and institutional capacity to
influence policy decisions at the EU level. This is particularly evident in
areas such as environmental regulation, migration, and trade, where the
interests of larger states often dominate the policy agenda (Baldacchino 2010).
Malta’s negotiating power is constrained by its size, which limits its ability
to form large voting blocs or exert significant pressure in key EU forums.
Additionally, Malta’s dependence on EU structural funds and external markets
means it must often align with broader EU policies, even when they may not
fully align with its national interests.
Despite
these challenges, Malta has employed various strategies to enhance its
influence within the EU. By aligning itself with other small states and forming
alliances with like-minded countries, Malta has amplified its voice in specific
policy areas, particularly climate change, migration, and regional security
(Briguglio 2016). Moreover, Malta has sought to leverage its strategic location
as an asset, positioning itself as a mediator in Mediterranean affairs and a
gateway between Europe and North Africa.
In
conclusion, while Malta benefits from its EU membership regarding economic
integration and resource access, it continues to face the vulnerabilities
inherent to SIS. Its environmental fragility, financial dependence, and
geopolitical challenges persist, limiting its ability to influence EU-wide
policy in the same way that larger member states can. Malta’s small size and
vulnerabilities complicate its negotiating position within the EU, but it has
effectively navigated some of these challenges through strategic alliances and
niche diplomacy. Nevertheless, the inherent constraints of being a small island
state within a larger political and economic union remain significant factors
that shape Malta’s policy strategies and outcomes.
2.3 The EGD and Small
States
The
academic discourse surrounding the EGD has primarily focused on its
macroeconomic and environmental impacts across the EU, with significant
attention given to major economies such as Germany, France, and Italy
(Tagliapietra & Zachmann, 2020; Dupont & Oberthür, 2021). These
analyses focus on critical areas like energy transitions, carbon reduction, and
sustainable growth but often overlook how these broad policies translate into
action in more minor and peripheral member states. Malta, for example, faces
distinct economic and environmental realities that are not adequately addressed
in the current literature.
Tagliapietra
and Zachmann (2020) argue that the EGD, while ambitious, offers a
one-size-fits-all approach despite apparent disparities in the economic
structures, energy dependencies, and environmental vulnerabilities across EU
member states. Their analysis, while robust for larger, more industrialised
countries, often overlooks the unique challenges faced by smaller nations like
Malta, with limited industrial sectors and heavy reliance on imported energy.
Similarly, Dupont and Oberthür (2021) analyse the institutional and governance
structures of the EGD but fail to address the specific governance challenges
faced by smaller states with limited administrative capacity to implement such
comprehensive initiatives. A more inclusive approach is needed to ensure that
all EU member states can effectively implement the EGD regardless of size.
This
gap in the literature is not just a theoretical oversight but has practical
implications. Smaller states face specific risks related to climate change,
such as rising sea levels, more frequent extreme weather events, and economic
challenges linked to tourism and agriculture. The lack of detailed studies on
how the EGD might impact smaller economies, especially those with distinct
vulnerabilities like Malta, leaves policymakers with insufficient guidance on
adapting these policies to local conditions.
2.4 The EGD: Scope and
Implications for Malta
For
smaller member states like Malta, the EGD presents opportunities and
challenges. Malta’s unique constraints stemming from its small landmass,
reliance on imported energy, and exposure to climate risks complicate the
implementation of EGD policies (European Commission, 2019).
Malta’s
energy system is a critical area of concern. The island is heavily dependent on
imported fossil fuels, making the transition to renewable energy a significant
challenge. The EGD’s emphasis on renewable energy and energy efficiency is
crucial for Malta, where shifting to sustainable energy sources could
significantly reduce the island’s carbon footprint and enhance its energy
security. However, scholars like Bassi and Calabria (2021) caution that the
broad policy framework of the EGD may not fully account for the specific needs
and constraints of SIS like Malta, particularly in areas such as energy
security, where the island’s limited land area and resources present
significant obstacles to the deployment of renewable energy infrastructure at
scale.
The
geographic location of Malta in the central Mediterranean further complicates
its climate adaptation efforts. Malta is particularly vulnerable to rising
temperatures, prolonged periods of drought, and the threat of rising sea levels
(Camilleri et al., 2020). These environmental challenges are compounded by
Malta’s high population density, which puts additional pressure on the island’s
limited natural resources. Therefore, Malta’s emphasis on climate resilience
and adaptation is paramount to the EGD. However, the extent to which the EGD’s
strategies are tailored to address Malta’s specific vulnerabilities remains
debatable. As Briguglio (2020) highlights, Malta’s small size and limited
administrative capacity can hinder the implementation of comprehensive climate
adaptation strategies, necessitating a more nuanced approach considering these
limitations.
Beyond
energy, the EGD also has implications for Malta’s agricultural and water
management sectors. The EGD’s initiatives on sustainable agriculture and water
management are particularly relevant to Malta, where climate change is expected
to exacerbate existing water scarcity and food security challenges. However,
the literature indicates that implementing these initiatives in Malta will
require significant adjustments to account for the island’s unique
environmental and socio-economic context. For instance, Micallef and Borg
(2021) note that Malta’s reliance on desalination for its freshwater supply,
combined with the projected increase in droughts due to climate change, will
necessitate innovative approaches to water management that go beyond the scope
of the EGD’s current provisions.