Research Question
To what extent has emotional U.S. media influenced the efficacy of China’s sports diplomacy?
This study evaluates how U.S. media framing—marked by emotional and often critical coverage—has shaped global perceptions of China’s sports diplomacy and national image. By examining visibility, valence, and framing strategies, the research explores the causal relationship between U.S. media coverage (IV) and the efficacy of China’s sports diplomacy (DV) across four empirical cases.
Literature Review
National Image
- National image reflects how a country is perceived globally, encompassing cultural, political, and economic dimensions.
- Hosting mega-events like the Olympics is often seen as a strategic tool to enhance national image, especially for countries facing reputational challenges. As Hede (2005) notes, “the staging of mega-events plays an important role in national image formation.”
Olympics and National Image
- The Olympics are particularly impactful in shaping national image due to their global visibility. However, the extent of success depends on the framing of these events in global media. For example, Dong et al. (2005) found that “mass media reports on the Beijing Olympics 2008 tended to focus more on political issues when compared to previous host cities.”
Framing Theory
- Framing theory explains how media shape public perception by emphasizing specific aspects of a story. Entman (1993) argues that frames “define problems, diagnose causes, make moral judgments, and suggest remedies.” In the context of Chinese sports diplomacy, U.S. media often frame China’s efforts as politically motivated, limiting their efficacy in improving national image.
Empirical Cases
1. Stadium Diplomacy (Without U.S. Media Influence)
Stage One (Before IV):
- China invested in building stadiums in Africa, Southeast Asia, and Latin America as part of its Belt and Road Initiative.
- The goal was to strengthen bilateral ties and showcase China as a development partner.
- The visibility and valence of these efforts were primarily shaped by local media, which often framed the initiatives positively.
Stage Two (IV Changes):
- U.S. media had minimal involvement in framing stadium diplomacy, allowing China’s narrative of goodwill and partnership to dominate.
Causal Mechanism (CM):
- Without U.S. media interference, stadium diplomacy effectively improved China’s image at the bilateral level, but its global impact was limited due to low visibility outside the host regions.
DV Outcome:
- Bilateral relations improved, but China’s overall national image did not significantly change globally.
2. 2008 Beijing Summer Olympics (With U.S. Media Influence)
Stage One (Before IV):
- China’s image before 2008 was associated with rapid economic growth but marred by concerns over human rights and censorship.
- Domestic media framed the Olympics as a chance to project modernization and unity.
Stage Two (IV Changes):
- U.S. media coverage introduced emotionally charged narratives, focusing on political controversies, such as Tibet protests and censorship. According to Dong et al. (2005), “mass media reports tended to focus more on political issues,” reducing the Games’ potential to reshape China’s global image positively.
Causal Mechanism (CM):
- Emotional framing by U.S. media amplified existing criticisms of China, diluting the positive impact of its sports diplomacy.
DV Outcome:
- Domestically, the Olympics boosted national pride. Internationally, China’s image saw mixed results, with criticism overshadowing its achievements.
3. 2022 Beijing Winter Olympics (With U.S. Media Influence)
Stage One (Before IV):
- By 2022, U.S.-China relations had worsened due to trade wars, the COVID-19 pandemic, and human rights issues.
- Domestically, Chinese media framed the Olympics as a celebration of resilience and national strength.
Stage Two (IV Changes):
- U.S. media coverage heavily criticized the event, focusing on diplomatic boycotts, surveillance concerns, and Xinjiang-related controversies.
- Emotional language, such as “human rights abuses,” dominated Western narratives.
Causal Mechanism (CM):
- U.S. media reinforced pre-existing negative perceptions of China, framing the Games as a political rather than cultural or sporting event.
DV Outcome:
- The Games succeeded in bolstering domestic morale but failed to improve China’s international image, as critical media coverage eroded the intended message of unity and global leadership.
4. 2024 Paris Summer Olympics (Anticipated U.S. Media Influence)
Stage One (Before IV):
- China’s participation in the 2024 Olympics offers a chance to align with global priorities like sustainability and inclusivity.
- Current framing focuses on China’s role in esports and collaborative sports development.
Stage Two (IV Changes):
- U.S. media narratives will likely focus on geopolitical issues and potential criticisms, such as environmental concerns or authoritarian control, affecting China’s ability to project a positive image.
Causal Mechanism (CM):
- If U.S. media continues to frame China’s participation negatively, it could hinder China’s efforts to align with global themes. Conversely, positive narratives around sustainability could create an opportunity to counterbalance past criticisms.
DV Outcome:
- The efficacy of China’s sports diplomacy in 2024 will depend on its ability to counter U.S. media framing by aligning with global priorities.
Variables
Independent Variable (IV):
U.S. Media Influence
- Defined by visibility, valence, and emotional framing of China’s sports diplomacy efforts.
Dependent Variable (DV):
Efficacy of Chinese Sports Diplomacy
- Measured by changes in national image (visibility, valence, and framing).
Causal Mechanism (CM):
Framing Dynamics
- U.S. media framing amplifies or diminishes the visibility and valence of China’s sports diplomacy, affecting its global reception.
Analysis
1. Stage One: Before IV Changes
- Discuss the baseline conditions of China’s national image and sports diplomacy before U.S. media involvement. For example:
- Stadium diplomacy: Effective bilateral relationships without media scrutiny.
- Pre-2008: China’s image focused on economic growth but limited cultural or political appeal.
2. Stage Two: After IV Changes
- Analyze how U.S. media’s emotional framing altered the visibility and valence of China’s efforts:
- 2008 Olympics: Mixed results due to critical narratives.
- 2022 Olympics: Polarized perceptions amplified by geopolitical tensions.
- 2024 Olympics: Potential outcomes depend on aligning with global themes.
Conclusion
This research highlights the pivotal role of U.S. media in shaping the efficacy of Chinese sports diplomacy. The findings suggest that:
- Without U.S. media influence, as in stadium diplomacy, China can improve bilateral relations but struggles to enhance its global image.
- U.S. media’s emotional and critical framing undermines China’s efforts to use the Olympics as a soft power tool.
- Future opportunities, like the 2024 Paris Olympics, require China to align its messaging with global priorities to mitigate negative framing.